Enhancing Teaching and Learning Practices in Malaysia

Enhancing Teaching and Learning Practices in Malaysia Education is one of the main fundamentals in building up a nation. In Malaysia, education has always been the top priority of the government. About a quarter of the government 5 years budget is allocated to the ministry of education to maintain good education system in this country. The vision of the government is to make Malaysia a centre of educational excellence. There are three levels of education in Malaysia which are the primary education a period of six years, that is, from Standard One to Standard Six; secondary education five years, that is, from Form One to Form Five; and the tertiary level of education. Upon completion of secondary education, eligible students can opt to pursue two years of post-secondary education, Form Six. This is the university entrance preparatory course. The pre-tertiary education (pre-school to post-secondary education) is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education (MOE) while tertiary or higher education is the responsibility of the Mini stry of Higher Education (MOHE).  [1]   Education is a priority of the Federal Government of Malaysia and it is committed to provide quality education to all. Most of the Five-Year Malaysian Plans have placed great importance on education, training and lifelong learning. In line with greater focus on human development, an average of about twenty-one percent of the total budget allocation has been allocated for the expenditure of education and training development. The national philosophy of education states that Education in Malaysia is an ongoing effort towards further developing the potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced and harmonious, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. It is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, possess high moral standards, and are responsible and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-being as well as to contribute to the betterment of the family, society and nation at large.  [2]   In order to support Vision 2020 the education system is transforming which entail changing the culture and practices of Malaysias primary and secondary schools, moving away from memory-based learning to an education that stimulates thinking, creativity, caters to individual abilities and learning styles, and based on a more equitable access. At the same time, Malaysia is initiating many approaches in order to keep up with the changing world and current needs which will generate a well-structured development of higher education. The government has also clearly outlined the strategic thrusts in the National Higher Education Strategic Plan to make Malaysia an international centre of educational excellence by 2020.  [3]   MALAYSIAN EDUCATION SYSTEM Education is the responsibility of the Federal Government. Malaysias national education system is divided into pre-tertiary and tertiary education. There are two governing authorities for the education sector. Pre-tertiary education, that is, from pre-school to secondary education, is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education (MOE) while tertiary education or higher education is the responsibility of the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). Under the national education system, a child begins his/her education with pre-school education at the age of four and will be admitted into the first year of the six years compulsory primary education when the child reaches the age of six on the first day of January of the current school year. The government provides eleven years of free primary and secondary education. Most schools in the country are government or government-aided schools and a number of private schools. The school starts in January and ends in November. Students sit f or common public examinations at the end of primary, lower secondary, supper secondary and sixth form levels.  [4]   Pre-school Education. Pre-school education is part of the National Education System under the Education Act, 1996. The aim of pre-school education is to provide a firm foundation for formal education. Pre-schools are run by government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as well as private institutions. The major government agencies that are responsible for pre-school education are the Ministry of Education (MOE), the Ministry of Rural Development, and the Ministry of National Unity and Community Development. Children enroll between the ages of four and six and all pre-schools have to abide the curriculum guidelines set by the Ministry of Education. The curriculum enables pre-school children to acquire sufficient basin communication, social and other positive skills in preparation for primary schooling. The learning components include language and communication, physical development, cognitive development, moral and spiritual growth, socio-emotional development, aesthetic and creativity. Primary Education. Primary education is divided into two phases phase 1: Year 1-3 and phase 2: Year 4-6. Education at this level aims to provide the child with a firm foundation in the basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic, as well as emphasizing thinking skills and values across the curriculum. While education at this level is not compulsory, more than ninety-nine percent of this age-group are enrolled in primary schools throughout the country. There are two types of schools at the primary level the National Schools and the National-Type Schools. In the National Schools the medium of instruction is the Malay language which is the national language. The medium of instruction in the National-Type Schools is either Chinese language or Tamil language. in both types of schools, the Malay language is a compulsory subject. English is compulsory and is taught as a second language in all schools. Chinese, Tamil and indigenous languages are also offered as subjects in national sch ools.  [5]   Secondary Education. Secondary education is basically an extension of primary level education. Education at this level is general in nature and is divided into lower and upper secondary level, and a special year transition program known as Remove Class for pupils from the National-Type Chinese and Tamil Primary Schools.  [6]   Remove Class. Remove Class is a transition year for pupils from the Chinese and Tamil medium schools to acquire sufficient proficiency in the national language to enable them to learn through this medium the following year. However, pupils who have performed well in the Primary Assessment Test (UPSR Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah) at the end of Year 6, are allowed to proceed directly to Form 1. Lower Secondary Level (Form 1-Form 3). This level covers a period of three years. Education at this level is general in nature. All subjects are core subjects and compulsory for all. Chinese, language, Tamil language and Arabic language (Communication) are offered as additional subjects. Upon completion, pupils sit for a common examination, that is, the Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR Penilaian Menengah Rendah). Upper Secondary (Form 4-5). Education at this level covers a period of two years. Besides following the general education program, students begin to specialize in the science, arts, technical, vocational and religious discipline. Specific schools are designated for each discipline. These schools are academic schools, technical schools, vocational schools and religious schools. Upon completion, students sit for the Malaysian Certificate of Education (SPM Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) examination. Secondary Technical Schools. Secondary technical education is aimed at producing an adequate pool of qualified students who excel in mathematics and science, as well as in basic engineering subjects. Students in secondary technical schools follow the same core subjects of upper secondary school curriculum and choose science and technical subjects as electives. Admission to these schools is through application based on the PMR results, and only students with strong background in Mathematics and Science are selected. Students from these schools are expected to continue their studies in science and technology-related courses at the higher levels as well as in advanced skills. Secondary Vocational Schools. These schools provide courses in pre-employment skills as well as general education. Courses are offered in two streams vocational education stream and skills education stream. In the former, emphasis is given to general and technical subjects in order to provide students with a good foundation for admission into polytechnics or other higher institutions. In the skills stream emphasis is given to practical work to develop competency in trade skills required by related industries. Students are prepared for the National Vocational Training Certificate. Upon completion of eleven years of free education, further education is no longer automatic but is subject to the individuals academic performance and financial stability. These upper secondary school graduates, that is, Form Five leavers, can opt to continue their education in post-secondary schools to obtain a pre-university qualification such as the Sixth Form or Matriculation program or GCE ALevel, or further their education at tertiary or higher institutions. Higher education includes certificate, diploma, undergraduates as well as postgraduate studies. Undergraduate studies consist of Bachelors degree levels and professional studies while postgraduate studies consist of Masters degrees and PhD levels. Generally, higher education at the diploma level is for secondary school certificate holders, that is, Form Five (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia or SPM) from the age of seventeen onwards. The Bachelors degree is for students from the age of nineteen onwards with post-secondary qualifica tions such Form Six (STPM Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia), which is equivalent to the GCE ALevel, or pre-university qualifications.  [7]   MALAYSIAN SCHOOL CURRICULUM The role of the school curriculum is to ensure the holistic development of the individuals potential, mentally, spiritually, emotionally and physically. The curriculum is to bring faster the Malaysian citizen who is balanced and well-rounded individual, trained, skillful and cherishes the national aspiration for unity. The Malaysian school curriculum has been reframed and realigned to present and future needs. Besides that, rapid developments in technology, new theories of learning and developments within Malaysia itself necessitated the systematic curriculum. The basis of the curriculum took into considerations four main aspects national development, individual development, learning theories, and the national philosophy of education.  [8]   The basic theoretical principle in the planning and design of the Malaysian curriculum is the integrated approach. Infusion of specific aspects of education such as moral values, patriotism, science and technology, language, environmental education, study skills, creative and critical thinking, and road safety across the subject disciplines is a basic feature in the Malaysian curriculum. Such an infusion is made with the purpose of consolidating these aspects which may already be in the school subjects but needs further emphasis. Patriotism, for example, is already discussed in History and Local Studies but because of its importance, the national curriculum requires that it be taught across other subjects. Others such as environmental education are taught across the curriculum because it cannot be accorded the status of subject due to constraints of time, facilities and the like. The technical, vocational and skills training offered in secondary technical and secondary vocational schools provide students with practical training and employability skills. Besides that, the use of technology as an enabler to facilitate teaching and learning activities have made learning interesting, motivating, stimulating, meaningful and develop skills that will prepare students to face greater challenges.  [9]   Pre-school Curriculum. The pre-school curriculum focuses on the whole-child development. The curriculum emphasizes on socialization process, the development of personality and the preparation of children to enter primary school. The components in the curriculum include language and communication, cognitive development, socio-emotional development, spiritual development, physical development and aesthetic and creativity. Primary School Curriculum. The Integrated Curriculum for Primary School (ICPS) is divided into two phases phase 1 for Year 1-3 and phase 2 for Year 4-6. The ICPS emphasizes the mastery, reinforcement and application of 3Rs, acquisition of complex skills and knowledge, pre-vocational skill, and the development of personality, attitudes and values. The ICPS consists of three areas, mainly communication, man and his environment, and self development. These areas are further divide into six components basic skills, humanities, art and recreation, living skills, communication, spiritually, values and attitudes. Secondary School Curriculum. The emphasis of Integrated Curriculum for Secondary School (ICCS) is on general education, the consolidation of skills acquired in primary school, the development of attitudes, values, personality, and interests as well as specialization for higher education and career options. CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES IN EDUCATION In the twenty-first century, education in Malaysia will face significant challenge as it is in this century that the country is set to become industrialized. It is imperative therefore to understand what it is that needs to be given attention for the education system to prepare adequately for the century: Shift to K-economy. Knowledge has to be the basic form of capital in the twenty-first century to position Malaysia for industrialization. The education system must yield knowledge workers to push Malaysia into the K-economy. Knowledge workers are essential for the country to make investments in technology which will contribute to sustainable growth. Malaysian education must enhance knowledge and technology in every facet of its education system.  [10]   Improving Education Qualities. Given all the qualitative achievements at all levels of education with continuous growth of enrolment rates, Malaysian education has to shift to the dominance of qualitative target. Several factors have to be considered for determining educational quality. The areas of content and delivery that directly affect teaching and learning must be given emphasis. There have to be innovations within the approach for both the content and delivery at all levels of education. To ensure effective delivery, teacher professionalism has to be addressed to induce greater professionalism among school teachers. Recruitments, training and school restructuring should be the primary target areas for introducing professionalism among teachers.  [11]   Narrowing the Digital Divide. The equity issue in education should aim for providing equal access to education. The focus of democratization of the education in the twenty-first century will be in terms of providing equity in education with emphasis on knowledge and technology between rural and urban school population. Malaysian education has to achieve increase participation and improved performance in science and technology especially among the school population. Apart from providing the necessary infrastructure, science and technology have to be aggressively promoted to harness interest among students.  [12]   Redifining the Role of the Private Sector. The role of the private sector is vital particularly at the higher level of education. It releases some of the heavy financing load off the government, reduces the capacity constraints of the public institutions, and provide innovation and competition. Nonetheless, profit and commercial motivations have developed a number of problems. These problems if not address adequately will effect the quality of higher education in the country. One broad question that should be addressed is what should be the role of private higher education should they be complementary, supplementary or both.  [13]   Teaching Methodology. Two shortcoming are identified in the current practice: (i) lecture-based instruction students tend to become passive recipients of knowledge and resort to rote learning; (ii) teacher-centered students tend to rely on their teachers to decide what, when, and how to learn. This worked relatively well but it is not clear that students are learning at higher, conceptual level of thinking.  [14]   PROPOSED ENHANCEMENTS Several factors ought to facilitate the enhancements of the Malaysian education system, especially the national curriculum such as the introduction of new subjects and programs in schools. The facilitating factors include findings of research and studies, public opinions, world trends, social and economic needs and political pressures. In addition, they are to be facilitated further with the existence of the following supporting factors at varying degrees: The governments continued efforts to expand and improve education and training through increase in the budget for education. The experience over the years of the nations education policy in enhancing quality and access to education to meet the needs of rapid development of the nation. Availability of basic infrastructure and training, that is, in-service teacher training, seminars, forums and workshops to familiarize teachers with the curriculum and to upgrade teachers efficiency. Continuous training received by ministry officers both locally and overseas covering a wide range of topics which helps the officers to gain more knowledge and experience in planning and implementing curriculum reform initiatives. Public awareness and support to carry out educational reforms to fulfill the needs of cultural, social and economic development. Efforts by both the government and private sectors to intensify the acquisition and application of information and communication technologies in all fields of life as a result of globalization and modernisation. The strong commitment and awareness among parents of the importance of education in producing educated, knowledgeable and skillful Malaysians who are prudent, creative and innovative. In the learning process, to develop inter-personal and small-group skills teachers must provide opportunities for group members to know each other, support and accept each other, communicate accurately and confidently, and resolve differences constructively. Promotive interactions individual can achieve promotive interaction by helping each other, exchanging resources, challenging each others conclusion, provide feedback, encouraging and striving for mutual benefits. Individual accountability teachers should assess the amount of effort that each member is contributing. These can be done by giving an individual test to each student and randomly calling students to present their groups work. Group processing teachers should provide opportunities for the class to assess group progress. This would enable group to focus on good working relationship, facilitate cooperation in learning and ensure members get feedback.  [15]   The curriculum must be so designed and randomly monitored to help students achieve overall and balance development and improvement. Appropriate mix of learning strategies to ensure mastery of basic competencies and promotion of holistic development. More emphasis should be given on students understanding of a particular concept, guiding students in active learning, providing opportunities for discussion and elaboration, and encouraging them to work with peers and teachers. Encourage and support collaborative effort with students from other schools or even from other countries. The curriculum and teaching methodology must cater to students different capabilities, for example, their learning styles and levels of intelligence. Allow students to practice self-paced, self-accessed and self-directed learning which can be facilitated via the use of technology.  [16]   CONCLUSION The environment and socialisation process to which students are exposed remain as important factors contributing to academic success and character building. The Malaysian educational system, at pre-school, primary and tertiary levels have consistently emphasised on the importance of nurturing, among others, moral values and ethics among students. Thus, the quality of education that teachers provide to students is highly dependent upon what teachers do in the classroom. Teachers should have the knowledge on how students learn and how best to teach. In addition, contemporary learning and teaching methodology should be in line with the technologies of tomorrow where technologies and communications infrastructure are paving the way for a more sophisticated ICT-enabled teaching and learning environment. Indeed, with the advent of globalisation and modernisation, the education curriculum in Malaysia for sustainable development in the new century, call for a total commitments from all Malaysians, with a sense of urgency in the face of increasing competition. The Malaysian policy framework recognises that education development plays an ever important role in building a sustainable, resilient and competitive society. Interestingly, the global education scenario has similar development strategies, namely, by providing wider accessibilities, ensuring quality education, continuous strategic education reforms so that the respective countries can compete as global education providers. In fact, education has already evolved into a big economic entity for some countries. Malaysia ought to be ready to face these challenges in the field of education, both internally and externally, with the advent of globalisation, trade liberalisation, and the development of ICT in this new century.

Anne Bradstreet’s Prolougue and Contemplation

Thomas Dudley, took great importance in seeing that she received superior education to that of most women as he would befit It. As such, one can Infer that Anne Broadsheet had some type of grudge to the male dominant society she grew on. Her writing malignant hidden meaning In which casual readers would see the surface intentions of her poems and not offend any male readers.However, inside her humble lyrics one can objectify flowing amounts of sarcasm, irony and active intensity towards male to female prejudice. This humble yet sarcastic tone can be seen in the poem as an indirect attack pointed towards the male world. These ironic intentions can be seen In the first stanza of Anne Breadbasket's' â€Å"The Prologue† where she states that her work Is simple and that she leaves historical recordings to others who have more skill, â€Å"To sing of wars, of captains, and of kings / Of cities founded, commonwealths begun For my mean pen are to superior things.. 1-3). Nevertheless, Madam Broadsheet would compare her supposed unrefined style as a toe with artist like Gallinule Barras which she enjoyed reading as described in the second stanza of â€Å"The Prologue†: But when my wondering eyes and envious heart Great Barras sugared lines do but read offer, Fool I do grudge the Muses did not part ‘Twixt him and me that over fluent store; A barras can do what a Barras will But simple I according to my skill. † (7-12) In the first ten stanzas of â€Å"Contemplations† Anne Broadsheet shows her mastery of poetic language and stylistic devices. Mrs..Broadsheet praises the glory of God's work; Ewing nature, life and the place that man occupies. In the fourth stanza of Mrs.. Breadbasket's â€Å"Contemplation† one can notice such praise of the elements of the natural world, â€Å"Then higher on the glistening sun I gazed, / whose beams was shaded by the leafy tree; / The more I looked, the more I grew amazed, And softly said, â€Å"Wha t glory's like to thee? † †¦ (22-25). Therefore, whether Anne Broadsheet did or did not write poems like â€Å"The Prologue† or â€Å"Contemplation† to please her father; such point does not change how we read her poetry.Anne Broadsheet mastery of titlists techniques, multiple meanings and language use in poetry streamline the way readers can Indulge oneself In her lyrical work. Such complex style of poetry Is a testament of Anne Broadsheet skill as an artist to be viewed with the likes of Gallinule Barras, Wayne Franklin, among others. Work Cited Broadsheet, Anne. â€Å"Contemplation† The Norton Anthology: American Literature shorter 7th edition. De. Julia Redhead. New York: W. W Norton & Company, Inc. , 2008. 99-106. Print. De. Julia Redhead. New York: W. W Norton & Company, Inc. , 2008. 98-99. Print.

Does the Euro Crises prove that any of these member states: Greece, Ireland and Portugal should have not been allowed to join the euro?

Abstract The creation of the Eurozone following the Maastricht Treaty led to the region becoming one of the largest single currency areas in the world. However, at the heart of this project lay a series of inherent weaknesses. This paper discusses these weaknesses from the perspective of three countries: Ireland, Portugal and Greece. Each of these countries had their own particular economic and fiscal issues which would have exposed them to economic shock should the Eurozone experience a financial downturn. This was the case in 2008 when the US led financial crisis spread to Europe. This paper assesses that none of these countries were sufficiently prepared to join the Eurozone but also that they also possessed their own unique structural weaknesses which would perpetuate any financial crisis. It is for this reason that these three states would not have been allowed to join and also that they all sought bailouts in order to stop their domestic governments from bankruptcy. Introduction The development of the Eurozone represented a further attempt in the European Union to create increased economic and fiscal convergence and integration. The recent financial crisis has provided this new project with its first major test. This paper begins by reviewing the development and evolution of the Euro and the Eurozone. In doing so, it looks at the considered need for fiscal stabilisation at the international level. This section also highlights the various fiscal and economic mechanisms which were put in place prior to allowing any country to join the project. Subsequent to this the eligibility of three countries, Ireland, Portugal and Greece is considered. Here, the rationale for these countries joining, as well as reviewing the structure of their respective economies, is taken into consideration. Further to this, the question of whether these countries met the stabilising mechanisms prior to joining is assessed. This paper then highlights various other reasons why it may hav e been beneficial for them not to join the Eurozone. Finally, this paper reviews the recent meltdown in the Eurozone area and highlights that this event was precipitated by a structural weakness in both US as well as global financial markets which left these three countries exposed to debts sufficient for them to require bailouts and restructuring programmes which were indicative of shock therapy. This paper concludes that Ireland, Portugal and Greece should have been allowed to join the Eurozone since neither of these countries had met the eligibility criteria. In addition each of these states possessed their own structural weaknesses that ultimately would have exposed them to an economic downturn, regardless of the causation. Euro Evolution The Euro is the common currency which is used by the majority of member states of the European Union (EU). It originated in 1992 following the signing of the Maastricht Treaty which contained three aspects to combining and increasing EU governance. The Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), as a vehicle for economic integration and financial convergence, was first muted in the late 1970s as a vehicle for furthering economic integration (Civitas, 2013), and represented the latest international drive towards economic stability. Originally known as the European Monetary System, it was wound up in 1992 with the development of the ERM (Civitas, 2013). Progression towards the ERM included the creation of an independent central bank, which was mandated to achieving and maintaining price stability across the Eurozone space; a Stability and Growth Pact (SGP) which consisted of an intergovernmental agreement which was conjoined with the EU legal framework, the aim of which was to limit member state fiscal deficits; and a no co-responsibility (in layman terms, a no bail out clause) which was enshrined within Article 125 of the Treaty (Europa, 1992). These mechanisms were considered to be decent fiscal instruments for EU and Eurozone governance and, as a result, member states did not consider that it was important to coordinate their economic policies. This latter aspect was forwarded by powerful member states such as the UK, France and Germany, which did not consider that they would have any benefit from these policies. For them, any subsequent domestic policy changes were considered to have a detrimental impact upon their finances (Campaign against Euro Federalism, 2013). However, as a precursor to Euro membership, aspiring member states need to comply with a pre-set series of fiscal guidelines. EU Member states which join the Eurozone must meet a series of convergence criteria (European Commission, 2014). These criteria are based on a series of fiscal; mechanisms which are utilised to restructure the economies of member states in order that the transition to conversion to the Euro are based upon macroeconomic indicators which are used to measure The convergence criteria are formally defined as a set of macroeconomic indicators which measure stability of prices and inflationary pressures; sound and sustainability public finances which includes an imposed limit on government borrowing as well as national debt in order that member states avoid possessing an excessive national deficit (European Commission, 2014). However prior to this, aspiring member states need to conform to the exchange-rate stability mechanism, through which participation in the ERM takes place for at least two years prior to membership without there being any evidence of a strong deviations from the ERM cr iteria (European Commission, 2014). A further factor in the progression towards joining the Eurozone for any aspirant state is an assessment of long-term interest rates. Indeed this latter criterion was a mitigating factor in the UK’s failure to adhere to ERM controls in the early 1990s (Civitas, 2013). More recently the Eurozone has been engulfed in a global financial crisis which began in the USA and spread to Europe via Iceland (this is discussed in greater detail later in the paper). The fallout from this particular crisis is yet to fully land. However, the Eurozone has progressed through a series of crises since the idea was first muted in the later 1970s and, more recently, via the sovereign debt crises of recent years. It is evident that the Eurozone is not an exact science and that there exist a number of structural issues at the heart of this project. Economic and Political Reasons for the Three joining the Euro The aforementioned group of PIGS (Portugal, Ireland, Greece and Spain) joined the Euro at its inception. This section discusses three of these states, Ireland, Greece and Portugal. Bardhan, Edelstein and Kroll (2011) noted that Ireland benefitted from a number from Eurozone membership. Additionally, it is noted that the period of economic convergence provided the country with an array of stabilising fiscal factors which led to the country becoming known as tiger economy (Bardhan, Edelstein and Kroll, 2011; BBC, 2011) but in 2008 the country was the first Eurozone country to fall in to recession (BBC, 2011). However this outcome was the end of a dream which, for Arestic and Sawyer (2012), was based upon a political aspiration of economic success as well as personal and national prosperity for the Irish population. Greece joined the Eurozone in 2001 (BBC, 2001). EU membership was previously extremely popular in Greece and its populace had experienced tough austerity measures in order to comply with the economic and fiscal mechanisms which were needed to ensure a successful transition to the new currency. Similarly, there was a political determination to join the new currency since it was seen that progression would provide increased international scope for the country (BBC, 2001). Lynn (2011) argues that the historic role, in terms of political development, of Greece was a contributory factor in the national rush to join the Eurozone and considered that this outcome was to be achieved at all costs. Schadler (2005) suggests that the at all costs caveat was provided by the austerity measures and the near compliance with pre-set regulatory fiscal criteria which ensured membership of this exclusive group. In effect, whilst Ireland had hoped for increased economic wealth and prosperity, Greek aspira tions largely concentrated upon gaining increased international respect and recognition. With regards to Portugal, it is noted that this country did not join the EU space until 1986 and, effectively, was a late comer to this political institution. This is of particular importance to its membership of the Eurozone since wholesale economic change first began thirteen years later as a precursor to Eurozone membership in 2002 (Porter and Prince, 2012). Porter and Prince (2012) argue that the country’s membership of the Euro came at the behest of a political leadership that had a largely uneventful foreign policy. They link the convergence with EU policies such as membership with the Eurozone with the decreasing influence within its former colonies (Porter and Prince, 2012). This includes the return of former territories to China during the same period as the shift in focus towards its near neighbourhood was taking place. To summarise, it can be evidenced that there were numerous reasons why Ireland, Greece and Portugal joined the Eurozone. These include increased pros perity and wealth as well as increased political clout and international recognition. Was the Convergence Criteria met by the Three? It is of particular concern that Ireland, Greece and Portugal required mass fiscal stimuli packages and bailouts in order to shore up their economies and protect the respective states from going bust. A central factor in this outcome, it can be argued is a failure of these three states to adhere to the fiscal criteria that membership of the Eurozone required in order to provide a secure transition to the new currency. As stated previously, aspirant Eurozone states were required to attain to a number of preset economic and fiscal controls which would have indicated their capabilities and successful transition to the Eurozone. Maduro (2012) holds a perspective which states that structural failings within the ERM, as well as the wider EU, failed to address the excessive cross-border flow of capital which was a contributory factor in the subsequent economic crisis. Mauro also highlights that a particular failure of the EU to implement the then existing rules relating to EU budgetary frameworks also impacted upon states abilities to progress to the Eurozone successfully. For Maduro (2012) this particular outcome was important to the success of the Greek model, as well as its subsequent economic crash, since it revealed that both the local and supra national system for monitoring public finances was not working as effectively as it should have. It is noted that Greek economic perfor mances were outside of the considered ERM requirements and that from 2000 to 2008, the budget deficit given to the European Commission was nearly three per cent of the country’s GDP. In 2001, it is also noted that Greece was warned by the European Central Bank ECB, that the country still work to do to if it was going to successfully be adpted into the Eurozone. This included developing the structure of its economy and bringing inflation under control (BBC, 2001). Nevertheless Greece did join the Eurozone despite having a series of noted failings within its central fiscal requirements. Bardhan, Edelstein, and Kroll, (2011) note that the Irish economy had been inflated by a large housing bubble. This helped inflate the Irish economy to a status of having near full employment by the turn of the century (Bardhan, Edelstein, and Kroll, 2011). However a party to this success proved to be the Irish commitment to the controls which had been placed upon it by the ERM. Regling and Watson (2010) argue that a failure of the ERM structure had a detrimental impact upon the Irish economy since the loss of fiscal independence was a mitigating factor on both the creation of the bubble as well as the failure of the Irish government to combat increasing inflationary, and other fiscal pressures. Regling and Watson (2010) blame this outcome on the structure of the ERM and highlight that a small nation requires having, as full as possible, fiscal controls. Portuguese compliance with ERM criteria provided a greater economic stimulus that had first been thought was possible (Constancio, 2005). This produced a similar outcome to the Irish economic experience of the ERM and realised a booming Portuguese economy. Constancio, (2005) also notes that subsequent pay increases outstripped inflationary pressures and this outcome provide to be decisive in the battle to retain control of this area of fiscal policy, particularly where an economic downturn would result in the possibility of rampant inflation. These outcomes, Constancio (2005) argued led to pay increases in Portugal outstripping their EU partners. Essentially this outcome was borne of the structural failings discussed earlier into this paper and were only exposed when these state were impacted by the financial crisis. In terms of the Eurozone qualifying criteria, it is to be noted that none of these three countries met the criteria for joining the Eurozone. Ireland, Portugal and Greec e, therefore were in good company and were aligned to the German, Spanish, Austrian et al experiences of convergence criteria which all failed to meet qualifying critiera. Indeed, , of all the member states only two, France and Luxembourg, were the only countries to satisfy all the convergence criteria (Arestis, Brown, Sawyer, 2001). Any other Reason why any of the Three should have not Joined the Euro The earlier discussions as to the reasons why these three states, Ireland, Portugal and Greece joined the Eurozone produced divergent responses and listed from economic reasons to political vanity and reshaping of foreign policy. These issues alone are not sufficient to realise the potential pitfalls should they experience an economic downturn, as was the case in 2008 onwards. Arestis and Sawyer (2012) noted that in the case of Greece the risks far outweighed the benefits. They compared Greece with Austria and recognised that both economic models were similar apart from Greece having a far lower wage economy that Austria. Austria, therefore, was capable of resisting economic shock. Had the Greek government recognised this potential risk then it is recognised that it would not have been in their benefit to join this monetary union. With regards to Portugal and Ireland, Constancio (2005) argues that these economies had not resolved the structural issues of boom and bust. AS a result ec onomic recession was a highly probable outcome in the event of an economic bust. In essence, therefore for reasons of due diligence it is arguable that neither of these staes should have joined the Eurozone. One other potential reason for not joining the Eurozone is the philosophical argument of losing sovereignty. After the ERM had its first crisis in the early 1990s, Palm (1996) noted that the loss of state sovereignty also meant the loss of fiscal control. Whilst this particular issue is discussed elsewhere in this paper, Palm (1996) specifically discussed the loss of fiscal control in terms of an absence of asymmetric county-specific economic shock which, he argued, would be a thing of the past. Instead Palm (1996) stated that it is entirely feasible that or counterbalancing methods would be needed in order to stop economic contagion since all member states would be affected in one way or another. With hindsight Palm (1996) is discussing the response to the Eurozone crisis of 2008 to the present day. It is unfortunate, therefore, that the three countries were unable to consider due diligence when considering their membership of the Eurozone. Had they have done so they would have r ecognised the exposure to the potential banking failures and acted accordingly. Euro crises The recent fiscal crisis in the Eurozone has highlighted that it is exposed to the international financial climate. The recent fiscal crisis began in earnest in the USA with a series of regulatory changes to the US banking system in the early 2000’s (Jickling, 2012). The collapse of US subprime lending facilities impacted on Europe, firstly in Iceland where its ballooning financial sector had been exposed to the debt crisis in the USA (Lewis, 2009), and latterly on other Eurozone member states which had been exposed to large banking debts and bad practices . This has included Cyprus and the PIGS group of nations, Portugal, Ireland, Greece and Spain. The latest crisis occurred in Cyprus where experiences there were in line with similar financial and economic failings within the Eurozone space. In each case, it can be evidenced that a number of structural failings as well as an inordinate exposure to risk have been causal factors in their particular fina ncial collapses Menendez, 2013). Indeed, Iceland subsequently possessed a national debt which was ten times its national GDP (Glitner, Landbanksi and Kaupthing, 2009). Jickling (2012) Argues that the underlying causal factors of the recent crisis in both the USA and in the Eurozone were structural and that, as a result, it can be evidenced that there were four factors which needed to be addressed. These factors are: imprudent mortgage lending, bursting of housing bubbles, the structural imbalance of global debt as well as issues relating to securitization (Jickling, 2012). Menendez (2013) notes that following the financial crisis the three countries, Ireland, Portugal and Greece were impacted further when they were faced within increased demand for higher interest rates on borrowing as well as reduced fees from issued bonds. This particular outcome also impacted upon the three mechanisms which were available to these countries (renegotiation, bond issues and monetization) when attempting to relieve themselves of the economic and fiscal burdens (Menendez, 2013). The resultant outcome was that the reform processes which they were able to utilise led to reform of their respective public sectors. Prior to this, Klein (2007) had argued that such an outcome would be indicative of the new model of international crisis management. Indeed with subsequent remedies for filling the vacuum caused by financial shortfalls becoming more autocratic and oppressive it is arguable as to whether the EU space witnessed for the first time a Bolivian style response to a financial crisis (Klein, 2007). Janssen (2011) argues that one possible solution could have been that the Euro is devalued however this would not have been beneficial to Germany since its economy is export driven. As such, the political shenanigans which led to the creation of the Eurozone, and which failed to realise the preset criteria for the vast majority of countries has continued to perpetuate the structural issues that reside at the heart of this institution. For Ireland, Portugal and Greece, however, the economic and fiscal issues remain. Conclusion In conclusion, the creation of the Eurozone has been some thirty years in the making and has been considered as a regional attempt at satisfying the need for a cross border fiscal control system. The ERM was developed in order to progress this ideal but failed to address a number of structural issues that resided within the international monetary system. As a party to this, the resultant exposure of the UK to fiscal issues resulted in this country leaving the ERM some twenty years ago. Since this time the project has developed and went live with a number of nations converting their currency to the Euro. As such the Eurozone was created. However the qualifying criteria of the Eurozone was not met by all but two countries and the subsequent exposure to the US banking crisis by Eurozone members left a number of them in need of financial bailout packages. This included Ireland, Portugal and Greece. These three countries were heavily exposed to this crisis as a result of their own structu ral issues which included booming economies and exposure to a credit bubble. When these bubbles burst, the Eurozone project was in crisis and, today, a number of issues remain unresolved. This includes how to restructure the economies of states that reside within the Eurozone. However as a result of the exposure of these three countries to the recent crisis, the failure to restructure their economies prior to joining, as well as their failure to adhere to all the preset compliances evidences that they should not have been allowed to join in the first place. This issue aside, with only France and Luxembourg satisfying the qualifying criteria the question of whether any other state should have been allowed to join remains a matter of debate. In conclusion, the Eurozone crisis which engulfed these three countries typifies the weakened global fiscal structure which led to the crisis in the first place. Bibliography Arestis, P., Brown, A., Sawyer, M. (2001) The Euro: Evolution and Prospects, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. Arestis, P., and Sawyer, M. (2012) The Euro Crisis, London: Palgrave McMillan. and Institutions, London: John Wiley & Sons. BBC (2001) Greece joins the Eurozone, (online), available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1095783.stm, (accessed on 29/10/14). BBC (2011), Europe’s PIGS: Country by country, (online), available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8510603.stm, (accessed on 29/10/14). Campaign against Euro Federalism (2013) What is to Happen?, London: Campaign against Euro Federalism. Civitas (2013) European Monetary System, London: Civitas. Constancio, V. (2005) European Monetary Union and the Portuguese Case, (online), available at http://www.bportugal.pt/en-US/OBancoeoEurosistema/IntervencoesPublicas/Lists/LinksLitsItemFolder/Attachments/9/interv20050727.pdf, (Accessed on 29/10/14). Europa (1992) Treaty of Maastricht on European Union, (online), available at http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/institutional_affairs/treaties/treaties_maastricht_en.htm, (accessed on 28/10/14). European Commission (2014) Who can Join and When, (online), available at http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/euro/adoption/who_can_join/index_en.htm, (accessed on 28/10/14). Glitner, Landbanksi and Kaupthing (2009) Joint Quarterly Report, Reykjavik: Glitner, Landbanksi and Kaupthing. Jickling,M. (2012) CausesoftheFinancialCrisis,(WashingtonDC:CongressionalResearchService). Klein,N.(2007)ShockDoctrine,Toronto: KnopfCanada. Lewis,M.(2009)WallStreetonthetundra,(online),availableathttp://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2009/04/iceland200904?printable=true¤tPage=all, Vanity Fair, (accessedon28/10/14). Lynn, M. (2011) Bust: Greece, the Euro and the Sovereign Debt Crisis, London: John Wiley and Sons. Maduro,M.P.(2012)Democracy and Justice: The formula for a new EU and Euro governance, (online)availableathttp://network.globalgovernanceprogramme.eu/democracy-and-justice/, Network, (accessedon29/10/14). Menendez,L.(2013)TheSpreadoftheEuropeanSovereignDebtCrisis,University ofIowa:CentreforInternationalFinanceandDevelopment. Palm, F. (1996) The European Exchange Rate Mechanism and The European Monetary Union, (J), De Economist, Vol. 144, (2), pp. 305 – 324. Porter, D., and Prince, D. (2012) Frommer’s Portugal, London: John Wiley and Sons. Regling, K., and Watson, M. (2010) A Preliminary Report on the Sources of Ireland’s Banking Crisis, Dublin: Ministry of Finance. Schadler, S. (2005) Euro Adoption in Central and Eastern Europe: Opportunities and Challenges, New York: International Monetary Fund.

A Research Article Written By Richard Hartshorne And...

In a research article written by Richard Hartshorne and Jennifer Baucom (2007), entitled, â€Å"Issues Affecting Cross-Cultural Adaptation of International Graduate Students Richard,† published at the Multicultural Learning and Teaching Journal, the issues or challenges that international graduate students related to cross-cultural adaption were investigated. The main idea of the study was that international students need to cope and adjust themselves to a new culture in order to make their learning experiences more meaningful, and in order to achieve this some barriers must be overcome. The main purpose of the study, therefore, was to recognize the diverse barriers that face the international students and then propose ways of overcoming these barriers efficiently. In a much broader sense, the objectives of the study are two-fold: to identify and understand the barriers for inter-cultural adaptation and then provide recommendations on how to lessen or overcome such barriers wi th the different stakeholders in mind. The revealed that such barriers are a result in differences in the international students’ home culture and the new or host culture, the differences in learning environments, and personal uniqueness or the â€Å"self.† Nevertheless, there are also similarities among these four factors. The authors noted that the similarities can be improved and the barriers can be minimized if some initiatives are to be taken. The authors were able to give five initiatives: give them time toShow MoreRelatedA Research Article Written By Richard Hartshorne And Jennifer Baucom1188 Words   |  5 PagesSummary In a research article written by Richard Hartshorne and Jennifer Baucom (2007), entitled, â€Å"Issues Affecting Cross-Cultural Adaptation of International Graduate Students Richard,† published at the Multicultural Learning and Teaching Journal, the issues or challenges that international graduate students related to cross-cultural adaption were investigated. The main idea of the study was that international students need to cope and adjust themselves to a new culture in order to make their learning